The heart of Sudan lies in its people who have endured relentless violence for the last twenty years without respite. Amidst this turmoil, Sudan boasts a profound history, a cultural legacy that demands safeguarding, and individuals who warrant emancipation from oppression. Regrettably, awareness of this nation's richness, beyond the perpetual violence, remains significantly restricted, particularly in Western regions. This post is dedicated to shedding light on the resilient Sudanese population, aiming to humanize and honor them amidst the extreme adversities they face. Let's delve into Sudan's history, culture, and languages to illuminate the essence and significance of the Sudanese people.
Kerma ware pottery beaker, about 1750–1550 B.C.E., from Kerma, Sudan
Sudan is a mosaic of traditions and a repository of ancient civilizations that have left an indelible mark on its landscapes, people and the world at large. Ancient Nubians under the Kingdom of Kush found abundance and prosperity as early as 5000 B.C. This ancient civilization did not suffer from a lack of luxury - ancient Nubia had rich deposits of gold, incense, ivory and ebony. Most Nubians lived along the life-giving river Nile and harvested grains, peas, lentils, dates, and possibly melons (1). Nubians developed alphabetic writing systems around 200 B.C. during the Meroitic period but one of the biggest clues to this ancient civilization lies in their pottery. The ancient potters were able to craft amazingly intricate receptacles without the use of a potter's wheel (2).
Perfume jar, 18th dynasty, found in a cemetery in Sesebi, southern Nubia
In 1500 B.C. the Egyptians defeated the Kushites and claimed the land as far as the Fourth Cataract of the Nile and the land was split into two - Wawat in the North and Kush in the South. The Egyptians exploited the people of their newly acquired land but the Egyptians could not hold it and in 1070 B.C. Egypt withdrew from the land. The Kushite king Kashta saw weakness in Egyptian politics and decided to use this to the advantage of the new kingdom of Kush. By the mid-eighth century B.C. the kingdom extended beyond Thebes. Despite Assyrian forces invading between 674 and 663 B.C. Kush remained a major power for over 1000 years (2).
Kush became a hot spot for commercial activity during this time and became heavily influenced by Arab traders and Islamic scholars but embraced their own local traditions as well - Nubian deities such as the lion-headed Apedemak appearing alongside the Egyptian Amun, Osiris and Isis. The Kushite dynasty ended around 350 C.E. (2). The strategic location of Sudan made it a hub for trade, with routes connecting Egypt, the Red Sea, and African regions, bringing wealth and cultural exchanges to the land.
This era also witnessed the spread of Christianity and Islam, significantly influencing the social and cultural fabric of the region. The period from the fall of Kush to the mid-6th century in Sudan is largely undocumented. During this time, Nubia was home to the Nobatae, known as the X-Group among modern archaeologists, though their origins remain unclear; However, they were obviously culturally dominated by Meroitic traditions as the direct successors of Kush. Occasionally, they allied with the nomadic Blemmyes (the Beja of eastern Sudan) to challenge the Romans in Upper Egypt, but Roman retaliations ultimately subdued them (3).
The Throne Hall of Dongola, a medieval monument widely regarded as one of the most symbolic monuments in Sudan. The building is protected by the Sudanese government, which is actively seeking to have the hall recognized by UNESCO as a site of international cultural importance (4).
With the arrival of Christian missionaries in the 6th century CE, the middle Nile region was divided into three kingdoms: Nobatia with its capital at Pachoras (modern Faras), Maqurrah with its capital at Dunqulah (Old Dongola), and ʿAlwah in the south with its capital at Sūbah (Soba) near present-day Khartoum. Between 543 and 575 CE, these kingdoms embraced Christianity, influenced by missionaries Julian in Nobatia, and Longinus, who extended his efforts to ʿAlwah. This led to the establishment of Christian churches and the adaptation of ancient temples for Christian purposes. However, after Longinus's departure, details about the region became sparse once more until the Arab incursions in the mid-7th century.
Following the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, Arabs emerged from Arabia and overran the surrounding lands, invading Egypt in 639. Arab raids extended up the Nile into Maqurrah, which had absorbed Nobatia by the 7th century. Arab-Nubian conflicts ensued until ʿAbd Allāh ibn Saʿd ibn Abī Sarḥ led a punitive expedition, sieging Dunqulah and heavily damaging the Christian cathedral. Despite heavy casualties, a peace agreement was reached, initiating a period of mutual gift exchanges, trade, and a ban on cross-settlement between Muslims and Nubians. This arrangement provided stable Arab-Nubian relations for almost six centuries, securing the kingdom of Maqurrah an additional 600 years of stability. The transition from ancient civilizations to Islamic rule around the 15th century laid the groundwork for the Sudan we know today, defined by a blend of indigenous traditions and external influences (3).
The country of Sudan faced two civil wars in the mid-20th century and again in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, eventually leading to the independence of South Sudan in 2011. The First Sudanese Civil War, which lasted from 1955 to 1972, had its origins in the deep-seated ethnic, cultural, and religious disparities between the northern and southern regions of Sudan. The roots of the conflict can be traced back to the colonial era when Sudan gained independence in 1956, following an agreement between the United Kingdom and Egypt. The central government in Khartoum, dominated by northern elites, failed to address the economic and political grievances of the southern regions, which mainly practiced Christianity or indigenous religions, in contrast to the predominantly Muslim North. Attempts to impose Arabization and Islamization in the South further exacerbated tensions. The outbreak of war was triggered by the mutiny of southern soldiers in response to the central government's oppressive policies, leading to widespread rebellion and guerrilla warfare due to the lack of infrastructure for a major offensive. Additionally, external influences, such as support from nations like Britain, Egypt, the Soviet Union, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Israel for different sides, added further complexity to the conflict.
The Second Sudanese Civil War - spanning from 1983 to 2005 - can be seen as a continuation of the first civil war, fueled by unresolved issues such as economic disparities, marginalization of certain ethnic groups, and the struggle for political power between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army. Another significant factor was the adoption of Islamic ideology as a form of governance in Sudan, again leading to conflicts with non-Muslim populations in the South. Moreover, the structural features of the Sudanese government, characterized by authoritarian rule and discriminatory practices, played a crucial role in perpetuating the conflict. The war was also exacerbated by the struggle for control over valuable resources like oil and gold, further intensifying the competition between different groups for power and influence. These multifaceted issues resulted in a protracted and devastating conflict that lasted for over two decades, claiming the lives of millions and causing immense suffering and displacement among the Sudanese population (5).
Merowe, Sudan - Portrait of unidentified young Sudanese woman
The people of Sudan never lost their vibrancy however, and their culture reminds us that hope persists. Sudanese music, with its rhythmic beats and soul-stirring melodies, speaks to the joys, sorrows, and aspirations of the people. Traditional dances, colorful garments, and delicious cuisine further showcase the richness of Sudanese culture, inviting outsiders to immerse themselves in its beauty and complexity of this African nation.
Khartoum, Sudan - The food on the local market in Sudan, Africa
Language, as a fundamental component of culture, serves as a bridge that connects Sudan's communities and preserves their stories. With over 100 languages spoken across the country, Sudan boasts a linguistic diversity that reflects its multicultural essence. Arabic, as the official language, unites Sudanese from different regions, while indigenous languages like Nubian and Beja celebrate the heritage of specific ethnic groups. Sudan's geographical diversity, from arid deserts in the north to tropical rainforests in the south, provides a varied and breathtaking landscape that is both fascinating and beautiful. Overall, Sudan's combination of history, culture, geography, and traditions makes it a truly unique and compelling country in Northeast Africa.
While it is beneficial to monitor current events it is essential to shed light on the multifaceted aspects that define Sudan. The people have identity beyond the lens of conflict. By delving into the history, culture, and language of Sudan, we not only honor the resilience of its inhabitants but also recognize the beauty and depth that lie at the core of this diverse African nation. It is through understanding, empathy, and appreciation that we can truly humanize Sudan and amplify the voices that deserve to be heard.
1. The History of Ancient Nubia | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures